AP Exam Glossary — Key Terms Across All Subjects

Advanced Placement (AP): A program run by the College Board that allows high school students to take college-level courses and earn college credit by passing AP exams.

AP Exam: A standardized test administered by the College Board in May, scored on a scale of 1-5, with 3+ generally considered passing.

College Board: The non-profit organization that administers the AP program, SAT, and PSAT exams.

AP Score: A score from 1-5 assigned to AP exam responses, with 5 being the highest (“extremely well qualified”) and 1 being the lowest (“no recommendation”).

AP Credit: College credit awarded by institutions for qualifying AP exam scores, policies vary by university.

Cell Theory: The fundamental theory stating that all living organisms are composed of cells, the cell is the basic unit of life, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment in an organism despite external changes, achieved through feedback mechanisms.

Natural Selection: The process where organisms with traits better suited to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more successfully, driving evolution.

Mitosis: The process of cell division that results in two identical daughter cells, used for growth and repair in eukaryotic organisms.

Meiosis: The process of cell division that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes, introducing genetic variation.

Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism, the combination of alleles for a particular gene.

Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an organism, resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

DNA Replication: The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division, ensuring genetic information is preserved.

Transcription: The process of copying a segment of DNA into mRNA in the nucleus.

Translation: The process of synthesizing a protein from the information encoded in mRNA at the ribosome.

Enzyme: A biological catalyst, typically a protein, that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process.

Feedback Mechanism: A regulatory process where the output of a system influences the system’s operation, either positively or negatively.

Ecosystem: A community of living organisms interacting with their non-living environment as a functional unit.

Biodiversity: The variety of life in a particular habitat or ecosystem, including genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.

Speciation: The formation of new and distinct species through the process of evolution.

Atomic Structure: The arrangement of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom, determining its chemical properties.

Periodic Table: A tabular arrangement of chemical elements organized by atomic number, electron configuration, and recurring chemical properties.

Chemical Bond: The attractive force holding atoms together in a compound, including ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds.

Stoichiometry: The quantitative relationship between reactants and products in a chemical reaction, based on the law of conservation of mass.

Molarity: The concentration of a solution expressed as moles of solute per liter of solution (mol/L).

Equilibrium: The state in a reversible chemical reaction where the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal.

Le Chatelier’s Principle: The principle stating that if a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed, the system adjusts to counteract the disturbance.

Acid-Base Reaction: A chemical reaction involving the transfer of a proton (H+) between an acid and a base.

Oxidation-Reduction (Redox): A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons between species, with oxidation being loss of electrons and reduction being gain.

Gibbs Free Energy: A thermodynamic quantity (ΔG) that determines whether a reaction is spontaneous (negative ΔG) or non-spontaneous (positive ΔG).

Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract shared electrons in a chemical bond.

Intermolecular Forces: Forces of attraction between molecules, including hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, and London dispersion forces.

Thermochemistry: The study of heat energy changes in chemical reactions and physical changes.

Kinetic Molecular Theory: A theory explaining the behavior of gases based on the idea that gas particles are in constant random motion.

Vapor Pressure: The pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid or solid phase at a given temperature.

Newton’s Laws of Motion: Three fundamental laws describing the relationship between an object and the forces acting on it: inertia, F=ma, and action-reaction.

Kinematics: The branch of mechanics describing motion without considering the forces that cause it.

Dynamics: The branch of mechanics concerned with the forces that cause motion and changes in velocity.

Conservation of Energy: The principle that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant, energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Conservation of Momentum: The principle that the total momentum of an isolated system remains constant, particularly important in collisions.

Work-Energy Theorem: The theorem stating that the net work done on an object equals its change in kinetic energy.

Simple Harmonic Motion: A type of periodic motion where the restoring force is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.

Electromagnetic Spectrum: The range of all electromagnetic radiation, from radio waves to gamma rays, differing in wavelength and frequency.

Coulomb’s Law: The law describing the electrostatic force between two charged particles, proportional to the product of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance.

Ohm’s Law: The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit: V = IR.

Kirchhoff’s Laws: Rules for analyzing electrical circuits: junction rule (conservation of charge) and loop rule (conservation of energy).

Magnetic Flux: The measure of the magnetic field passing through a surface, used in Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Faraday’s Law: The law stating that a changing magnetic flux induces an electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor.

Special Relativity: Einstein’s theory describing the relationship between space and time for objects moving at constant speeds in a straight line.

Quantum Mechanics: The branch of physics dealing with the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic levels.

American Revolution: The political upheaval in the 18th century in which the Thirteen Colonies broke free from British rule.

Constitutional Convention: The 1787 meeting in Philadelphia where the U.S. Constitution was drafted.

Federalism: The division of power between the national government and state governments in the United States.

Manifest Destiny: The 19th-century belief that American expansion across the continent was both justified and inevitable.

Civil War: The conflict between the Union and Confederate states from 1861-1865, primarily over slavery and states’ rights.

Reconstruction: The period following the Civil War (1865-1877) during which the Southern states were reintegrated into the Union.

Industrialization: The widespread development of manufacturing and industry in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Progressive Era: A period of social activism and political reform in the United States from the 1890s to the 1920s.

New Deal: President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s series of programs and reforms in response to the Great Depression during the 1930s.

Civil Rights Movement: The struggle for social justice and racial equality for African Americans, particularly during the 1950s and 1960s.

Cold War: The geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies from 1947 to 1991.

Suffrage: The right to vote, particularly the women’s suffrage movement leading to the 19th Amendment in 1920.

Emancipation Proclamation: President Lincoln’s executive order in 1863 freeing enslaved people in Confederate states.

Monroe Doctrine: The U.S. foreign policy doctrine opposing European colonialism in the Americas, established in 1823.

Dred Scott Decision: The 1857 Supreme Court ruling that African Americans could not be citizens and that Congress could not ban slavery in territories.

Rhetoric: The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, particularly the use of language to influence an audience.

Argument: A reasoned statement supported by evidence, structured with a claim, reasoning, and evidence in AP essays.

Thesis Statement: The central claim or main argument of an essay, typically stated in the introduction.

Evidence: Factual information, examples, or data used to support a claim in an argument.

Reasoning: The logical thinking and analysis that connects evidence to the thesis.

Synthesis: The combination of multiple sources and perspectives to create a cohesive argument or understanding.

Analysis: The examination and interpretation of a text’s content, structure, and literary devices.

Tone: The author’s attitude toward the subject or audience, conveyed through word choice, style, and language.

Style: The distinctive manner of expression in writing, including word choice, sentence structure, and literary devices.

Exigence: The urgent need or situation that prompts an author to write, the catalyst for the text.

Audience: The intended readers or listeners of a text, which influences the author’s rhetorical choices.

Purpose: The author’s goal in writing, whether to inform, persuade, entertain, or reflect.

Diction: The choice and use of words and phrases in speech or writing.

Syntax: The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences and effective writing.

Fallacy: A flaw in reasoning or argument that weakens the logic of a position, such as ad hominem or straw man.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The total monetary value of all finished goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a specific time period.

Inflation: A general increase in prices and fall in the purchasing value of money over time.

Unemployment Rate: The percentage of the labor force that is jobless and actively seeking employment.

Fiscal Policy: Government decisions about spending and taxation to influence the economy.

Monetary Policy: Actions by a central bank to manage the money supply and interest rates to achieve economic goals.

Aggregate Demand: The total demand for all finished goods and services in an economy.

Aggregate Supply: The total supply of goods and services produced within an economy at a given overall price level.

Trade Deficit: An economic condition where a country imports more than it exports, resulting in a negative balance of trade.

Opportunity Cost: The potential benefit lost when one alternative is chosen over another.

Comparative Advantage: The ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another producer.

Multiplier Effect: The amplified impact of an initial change in spending on the overall economy.

Phillips Curve: The inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation in the short run.

Laffer Curve: A graph showing the relationship between tax rates and tax revenue, suggesting an optimal tax rate.

Crowding Out: The reduction in private investment caused by increased government borrowing and spending.

Nominal vs. Real GDP: Nominal GDP is measured in current prices, while real GDP is adjusted for inflation.

• See Mathematics Glossary for mathematical foundations
• See Chemistry Glossary for detailed chemistry terms
• See Physics Glossary for advanced physics concepts
• See Computer Science Glossary for technology terms
• See Programming Glossary for computational thinking